在缺乏水源的西亞與北非流經多國的河流常是引發水權紛爭的主因引發以色列與巴勒斯坦水權問題的是哪一條河流

搶水! 西亞、南亞一觸即發

氣候變遷加劇、環境惡化,西亞、南亞、北非皆面臨水資源匱缺的窘境,恐怕水會越來越貴。

目前西亞、南亞、北非等地皆陷入水資源爭奪戰。以西亞為例,幼發拉底河上游的土耳其建造水壩,阻斷了下游伊拉克、敘利亞等國的水源。近日即傳出伊拉克近兩百萬人為缺水所苦。流經以色列、巴勒斯坦的約旦河,也讓兩國情勢更為劍拔弩張。目前以色列聲稱握有九9成的河流控制權,巴勒斯坦人只能使用不到兩成的水量。

南亞地區,印度河流經的兩國,巴基斯坦與印度,也引發搶水糾紛。水庫、水壩同樣造成下游地區喀拉蚩一帶的水荒問題。不過若要關閉其中一個水壩供水,就變成旁遮普地區缺水。顧此失彼,問題相當棘手。

北非尼羅河區域長久以來也為「水」爭執不休。烏干達、盧安達至今仍為了是否能自由在河畔建蓋水壩等設施,試圖與埃及協商。不過埃及最近也面臨大麻煩。科學家在兩年前就曾提出警告,若海平面上升,尼羅河三角洲區域難逃一劫,現在果真一語成讖。最近英國《衛報》報導,因海平面上升,尼羅河三角洲一帶開始面臨海水侵襲,不利農民種植。這塊土地生產全國近六成的農產品,未來發展,令人憂心。


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by Jessica McCallin�A26 Feb 2002

Oil, namely the vast reserves in Iran, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia, is the cause of many of the broad geopolitical battles plaguing the Middle East. But it is access to water, a more fundamental resource, that is at the root of much of the bitter conflict between the Israelis and the Palestinians.

Case in point: The Palestinians say they rejected a recent peace proposal from Israel because, among other things, it didn't give them control of water resources within their territory. Granted, it's tough to figure out what's to blame for the unravelling of the Middle East peace process, not least because there are so many issues on the table. But when viewed through the lens of one of those issues -- access to water -- the Palestinians seem to have a point.

在缺乏水源的西亞與北非流經多國的河流常是引發水權紛爭的主因引發以色列與巴勒斯坦水權問題的是哪一條河流

A young boy gets water from one of the trucks supplying villages.

The land that Israel and Palestine share is desert or semi-arid, so the limited amount of water in the area must be carefully managed if everyone is to get enough to ensure a decent standard of living. International law states that most of the water sources in the area are international resources, and as such must be shared by Israelis and Palestinians according to the principle of equitable and reasonable use.

Unfortunately, equitable and reasonable are two words that cannot be used to describe the water situation in Israel and Palestine.

At present, Israelis receive five times as much water per person as Palestinians. In Gaza, the disparity is even more striking, with settlers getting seven times as much water as their Palestinian neighbors. Stated differently, on average, Israelis get 92.5 gallons per person per day, while Palestinians in the West Bank get 18.5 gallons per person per day. The minimum quantity of water recommended by the U.S. Agency for International Development and the World Health Organization for household and urban use alone is 26.4 gallons per person per day.

Separate and Unequal

Yehezkel Lein from B'Tselem, the Israeli Information Center for Human Rights in the Occupied Territories, explains the origins of this discrepancy succinctly: "Underlying Israel's water policy in the Occupied Territories was the desire to preserve the quantity of water it uses."

在缺乏水源的西亞與北非流經多國的河流常是引發水權紛爭的主因引發以色列與巴勒斯坦水權問題的是哪一條河流

Where the water is. (Click here for a larger map.) Map: U.N. Department of Political Affairs.

Lein says a variety of methods were used to achieve this. First, Israel formalized the unequal division of the shared groundwater that was established prior to the occupation: capping Palestinian consumption, banning the digging of new wells, and putting quotas on how much water could be extracted from existing wells. Then it set about exploiting new water resources it didn't control before the 1967 War, such as the Eastern Aquifer in the West Bank and the Gaza Aquifer. These new water resources primarily benefit the Israeli settlements that are still being established in those areas -- even though those settlements are illegal. (Under international law, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip are defined as occupied territories and are therefore subject to the Geneva Conventions on the laws of war. The convention expressly prohibits moving people from the occupying county, i.e. Israel, into the occupied country, i.e. Palestine.)

Israel did hook some Palestinian towns into the water network -- although nearly 30 percent of Palestinian homes have yet to be connected -- but it did not provide appropriate maintenance work, with the result that, today, as much as half of the water meant to supply some Palestinian towns may be lost to leaking pipes, according to B'Tselem. The country also gave Israelis and settlers priority access to water: In the summer, when water is scare, the Israeli water company Mekorot shuts the valves of the main pipelines supplying Palestinian towns so that Israeli supplies remain unaffected.

The interim agreement of the Oslo peace process, signed by Israel and the Palestinian Authority in 1995, mandated zero reduction in the amount of water Israel was allowed to extract from the West Bank aquifers. Any additional water that the Palestinians needed was to come from new sources, not from a redistribution of existing sources. Israel, however, was given a veto on any water project aimed at tapping new sources and, over the past six years, has used that veto to block or delay almost all proposed projects.

在缺乏水源的西亞與北非流經多國的河流常是引發水權紛爭的主因引發以色列與巴勒斯坦水權問題的是哪一條河流

A snapshot of the West Bank: How dry was my valley? Photo: Jerusalem Water Undertaking.

When tensions between the two sides run high, as they have since September 2000 when the current uprising against the occupation started, the Palestinian water crisis becomes more desperate, especially for those without a connection to the water network. The Israeli policy of closure -- whereby tanks and soldiers block entrances to Palestinian towns and villages, disrupting the normal flow of people and traffic -- makes it difficult and dangerous for villagers to go to nearby wells and for water tankers to get into villages.

Human rights organizations are unanimous in condemning these policies, pointing out that they violate fundamental tenets of human rights law (such as the right to good health and an adequate subsistence) as well as fundamental tenets of international law (such as the ban on using resources from occupied territory and the ban on distributing water in a discriminatory way).

Such organizations also point out that Israel's water policy heightens political resentment and, ultimately, makes reaching any peace agreement more difficult. No such agreement will be struck that does not entail a just resolution to the water issue.

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